13 *NOTE: Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and robustness of this
14 manual and the associated software. However, because Reboot is constantly improving
15 and updating its computer software, it is unable to guarantee
16 the accuracy of printed or duplicated material after the date of publication and
17 disclaims liability for changes, errors or omissions.*
20 *Copyright © 2011-2019, Reboot*
22 *All rights reserved.*
24 *Reboot Document number F00000K-001 Rev. A.*
36 This document describes RMAC, a fast macro assembler for the 68000. RMAC currently
37 runs on the any POSIX compatible platform and the Atari ST. It was initially written
38 at Atari Corporation by programmers who needed a high performance assembler
39 for their work. Then, more than 20 years later, because there was still a need for
40 such an assembler and what was available wasn't up to expectations, Subqmod
41 and eventually Reboot continued work on the freely released source, adding Jaguar
42 extensions and fixing bugs. Over time the assembler has been extended by adding
43 support for Motorola's 68020/30/40/60, 68881/2, DSP56001 CPUs as well as Atari's
44 Object Processor (OP) found on the Atari Jaguar.
46 RMAC is intended to be used by programmers who write mostly in assembly language.
47 It was not originally a back-end to a C compiler, therefore it
48 has creature comfort that are usually neglected in such back-end assemblers. It
49 supports include files, macros, symbols with limited scope, some limited control
50 structures, and other features. RMAC is also blindingly fast, another feature
51 often sadly and obviously missing in today's assemblers.\ [1]_
53 RMAC is not entirely compatible with the AS68 assembler provided with
54 the original Atari ST Developer's Kit, but most changes are minor and a few minutes
55 with an editor should allow you to assemble your current source files. If you are an
56 AS68 user, before you leap into the unknown please read the section on Notes for
59 .. [1] It processes 30,000 lines a minute on a lightly loaded VAX 11/780; maybe 40,000 on a 520-ST with an SH-204 hard disk. Yet it could be sped up even more with some effort and without resorting to assembly language; C doesn't have to be slow!
65 * The distribution disk contains a file called README that you should read.
66 This file contains important nays about the contents of the distribution disk
67 and summarizes the most recent changes to the tools.
69 * Hard disk users can simply copy the executable files to their work or binary
70 directories. People with floppy disks can copy the executables to ramdisks,
71 install the assembler with the -q option, or even work right off of the floppies.
73 * You will need an editor that can produce "normal" format text files. Micro
74 Emacs will work well, as will most other commercial program editors, but not
75 most word processors (such as First Word or Microsoft Write).
77 * You will probably want to examine or get a listing of the file "ATARI.S". It
78 contains lots of definitions for the Atari ST, including BIOS variables, most
79 BIOS, XBIOS and GEMDOS traps, and line-A equates. We (or you) could
80 split the file up into pieces (a file for line-A equates, a file for hardware and
81 BIOS variables and so on), but RMAC is so fast that it doesn't matter
84 * Read the rest of the manual, especially the first two chapters on The Command Line and Using RMAC.
85 Also, `Notes for migrating from other 68000 assemblers`_ will save a lot of time and frustration in the long run.
86 The distribution disk contains example
87 programs that you can look at, assemble and modify.
92 The assembler is called "**rmac**" or "**rmac.prg**". The command line takes the form:
94 **rmac** [*switches*] [*files* ...]
96 A command line consists of any number of switches followed by the names of files
97 to assemble. A switch is specified with a dash (**-**) followed immediately by a key
98 character. Key characters are not case-sensitive, so "**-d**" is the same as "**-D**". Some
99 switches accept (or require) arguments to immediately follow the key character,
100 with no spaces in between.
102 Switch order is important. Command lines are processed from left to right in
103 one pass, and switches usually take effect when they are encountered. In general it
104 is best to specify all switches before the names of any input files.
106 If the command line is entirely empty then RMAC prints a copyright message
107 along with usage info and exit.
109 Input files are assumed to have the extension "**.s**"; if a filename has no extension
110 (i.e. no dot) then "**.s**" will be appended to it. More than one source filename may be
111 specified: the files are assembled into one object file, as if they were concatenated.
113 RMAC normally produces object code in "**file.o**" if "**file.s**" is the first
114 input filename. If the first input file is a special character device, the output name
115 is noname.o. The **-o** switch (see below) can be used change the output file name.
118 =================== ===========
120 =================== ===========
121 -dname\ *[=value]* Define symbol, with optional value.
122 -e\ *[file[.err]]* Direct error messages to the specified file.
123 -fa ALCYON output object file format (implied when **-ps** is enabled).
124 -fb BSD COFF output object file format.
125 -fe ELF output object file format.
126 -fx Atari 800 com/exe/xex output object file format.
127 -i\ *path* Set include-file directory search path.
128 -l\ *[file[prn]]* Construct and direct assembly listing to the specified file.
129 -l\ *\*[filename]* Create an output listing file without pagination
130 -m\ *cpu* Switch CPU type
150 `tom - Jaguar GPU JRISC`
152 `jerry - Jaguar DSP JRISC`
154 -o\ *file[.o]* Direct object code output to the specified file.
155 +/~oall Turn all optimisations on/off
156 +o\ *0-7* Enable specific optimisation
157 ~o\ *0-7* Disable specific optimisation
159 `0: Absolute long adddresses to word`
161 `1: move.l #x,Dn/An to moveq`
163 `2: Word branches to short`
165 `3: Outer displacement 0(An) to (An)`
169 `5: Base displacement ([bd,An,Xn],od) etc to ([An,Xn],od)`
171 `6: Convert null short branches to NOP`
173 `7: Convert clr.l Dn to moveq #0,Dn`
175 `8: Convert adda.w/l #x,Dy to addq.w/l #x,Dy`
177 `9: Convert adda.w/l #x,Dy to lea x(Dy),Dy`
178 -p Produce an executable (**.prg**) output file.
179 -ps Produce an executable (**.prg**) output file with symbols.
180 -px Produce an executable (**.prg**) output file with extended symbols.
181 -q Make RMAC resident in memory (Atari ST only).
182 -r *size* automatically pad the size of each
183 segment in the output file until the size is an integral multiple of the
184 specified boundary. Size is a letter that specifies the desired boundary.
186 `-rw Word (2 bytes, default alignment)`
190 `-rp Phrase (8 bytes)`
192 `-rd Double Phrase (16 bytes)`
194 `-rq Quad Phrase (32 bytes)`
195 -s Warn about unoptimized long branches and applied optimisations.
196 -u Force referenced and undefined symbols global.
197 -v Verbose mode (print running dialogue).
198 -x Turn on debugging mode
199 -yn Set listing page size to n lines.
200 file\ *[s]* Assemble the specified file.
201 =================== ===========
203 The switches are described below. A summary of all the switches is given in
207 The **-d** switch permits symbols to be defined on the command line. The name
208 of the symbol to be defined immediately follows the switch (no spaces). The
209 symbol name may optionally be followed by an equals sign (=) and a decimal
210 number. If no value is specified the symbol's value is zero. The symbol at-
211 tributes are "defined, not referenced, and absolute". This switch is most useful
212 for enabling conditionally-assembled debugging code on the command line; for
217 -dDEBUG -dLoopCount=999 -dDebugLevel=55
220 The -e switch causes RMAC to send error messages to a file, instead of the
221 console. If a filename immediately follows the switch character, error messages
222 are written to the specified file. If no filename is specified, a file is created with
223 the default extension "**.err**" and with the root name taken from the first input
224 file name (e.g. error messages are written to "**file.err**" if "**file**" or "**file.s**" is
225 the first input file name). If no errors are encountered, then no error listing
226 file is created. Beware! If an assembly produces no errors, any error file from
227 a previous assembly is not removed.
230 The **-i** switch allows automatic directory searching for include files. A list of
231 semi-colon seperated directory search paths may be mentioned immediately
232 following the switch (with no spaces anywhere). For example:
236 -im:;c:include;c:include\sys
238 will cause the assembler to search the current directory of device **M**, and the
239 directories include and include\sys on drive **C**. If *-i* is not specified, and the
240 enviroment variable "**RMACPATH**" exists, its value is used in the same manner.
241 For example, users of the Mark Williams shell could put the following line in
242 their profile script to achieve the same result as the **-i** example above:
246 setenv RMACPATH="m:;c:include;c:include\sys"
248 The -l switch causes RMAC to generate an assembly listing file. If a file-
249 name immediately follows the switch character, the listing is written to the
250 specified file. If no filename is specified, then a listing file is created with the
251 default extension "**.prn**" and with the root name taken from the first input file
252 name (e.g. the listing is written to "**file.prn**" if "**file**" or "**file.s**" is the first
255 The -o switch causes RMAC to write object code on the specified file. No
256 default extension is applied to the filename. For historical reasons the filename
257 can also be seperated from the switch with a space (e.g. "**-o file**").
262 The **-p** and **-ps** switches cause RMAC to produce an Atari ST executable
263 file with the default extension of "**.prg**". If there are any external references
264 at the end of the assembly, an error message is emitted and no executable file
265 is generated. The **-p** switch does not write symbols to the executable file. The
266 **-ps** switch includes symbols (Alcyon format) in the executable file.
268 The **-q** switch is aimed primarily at users of floppy-disk-only systems. It causes
269 RMAC to install itself in memory, like a RAMdisk. Then the program
270 **m.prg** (which is very short - less than a sector) can be used instead of
271 **mac.prg**, which can take ten or twelve seconds to load. (**NOTE** not available
272 for now, might be re-implemented in the future).
274 The **-s** switch causes RMAC to generate a list of unoptimized forward
275 branches as warning messages. This is used to point out branches that could
276 have been short (e.g. "bra" could be "bra.s").
278 The **-u** switch takes effect at the end of the assembly. It forces all referenced
279 and undefined symbols to be global, exactly as if they had been made global
280 with a **.extern** or **.globl** directive. This can be used if you have a lot of
281 external symbols, and you don't feel like declaring them all external.
283 The **-v** switch turns on a "verbose" mode in which RMAC prints out (for
284 example) the names of the files it is currently processing. Verbose mode is
285 automatically entered when RMAC prompts for input with a star.
287 The **-y** switch, followed immediately by a decimal number (with no intervening
288 space), sets the number of lines in a page. RMAC will produce *N* lines
289 before emitting a form-feed. If *N* is missing or less than 10 an error message is
295 Let's assemble and link some example programs. These programs are included
296 on the distribution disk in the "**EXAMPLES**" directory - you should copy them to
297 your work area before continuing. In the following examples we adopt the conven-
298 tions that the shell prompt is a percent sign (%) and that your input (the stuff you
299 type) is presented in **bold face**.
301 If you have been reading carefully, you know that RMAC can generate
302 an executable file without linking. This is useful for making small, stand alone
303 programs that don't require externals or library routines. For example, the following
311 could be replaced by the single command:
317 since you don't need the linker for stand-alone object files.
319 Successive source files named in the command line are are concatenated, as in
320 this example, which assembles three files into a single executable, as if they were
325 % rmac -p bugs shift images
327 Of course you can get the same effect by using the **.include** directive, but sometimes
328 it is convenient to do the concatenation from the command line.
330 Here we have an unbelievably complex command line:
334 % rmac -lzorf -y95 -o tmp -ehack -Ddebug=123 -ps example
336 This produces a listing on the file called "**zorf.prn**" with 95 lines per page, writes
337 the executable code (with symbols) to a file called "**tmp.prg**", writes an error listing
338 to the file "**hack.err**", specifies an include-file path that includes the current
339 directory on the drive "**M:**," defines the symbol "**debug**" to have the value 123, and
340 assembles the file "**example.s**". (Take a deep breath - you got all that?)
342 One last thing. If there are any assembly errors, RMAC will terminate
343 with an exit code of 1. If the assembly succeeds (no errors, although there may be
344 warnings) the exit code will be 0. This is primarily for use with "make" utilities.
346 Things You Should Be Aware Of
347 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
348 RMAC is a one pass assembler. This means that it gets all of its work done by
349 reading each source file exactly once and then "back-patching" to fix up forward
350 references. This one-pass nature is usually transparent to the programmer, with
351 the following important exceptions:
353 * In listings, the object code for forward references is not shown. Instead, lower-
354 case "xx"s are displayed for each undefined byte, as in the following example:
358 60xx 1: bra.s.2 ;forward branch
359 xxxxxxxx dc.l .2 ;forward reference
360 60FE .2: bra.s.2 ;backward reference
362 * Forward branches (including **BSR**\s) are never optimized to their short forms.
363 To get a short forward branch it is necessary to explicitly use the ".s" suffix in
365 * Error messages may appear at the end of the assembly, referring to earlier source
366 lines that contained undefined symbols.
367 * All object code generated must fit in memory. Running out of memory is a
368 fatal error that you must deal with by splitting up your source files, re-sizing
369 or eliminating memory-using programs such as ramdisks and desk accessories,
374 RMAC does not optimize forward branches for you, but it will tell you about
375 them if you use the -s (short branch) option:
380 "example.s", line 20: warning: unoptimized short branch
382 With the -e option you can redirect the error output to a file, and determine by
383 hand (or editor macros) which forward branches are safe to explicitly declare short.
385 `Notes for migrating from other 68000 assemblers`_
386 ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
387 RMAC is not entirely compatible with the other popular assemblers
388 like Devpac or vasm. This section
389 outlines the major differences. In practice, we have found that very few changes are
390 necessary to make other assemblers' source code assemble.
392 * A semicolon (;) must be used to introduce a comment,
393 except that a star (*)
394 may be used in the first column. AS68 treated anything following the operand
395 field, preceeded by whitespace, as a comment. (RMAC treats a star that
396 is not in column 1 as a multiplication operator).
397 * Labels require colons (even labels that begin in column 1).
399 * Conditional assembly directives are called **if**, **else** and **endif**.
400 Devpac and vasm call these
401 **ifne**, **ifeq** (etc.), and **endc**.
402 * The tilde (~) character is an operator, and back-quote (`) is an illegal character.
403 AS68 permitted the tilde and back-quote characters in symbols.
404 * There are no equivalents to org or section directives.
405 The **.xdef** and **.xref** directives are not implemented,
406 but **.globl** makes these unnecessary anyway.
408 * The location counter cannot be manipulated with a statement of the form:
414 * Back-slashes in strings are "electric" characters that are used to escape C-like
415 character codes. Watch out for GEMDOS path names in ASCII constants -
416 you will have to convert them to double-backslashes.
417 * Expression evaluation is done left-to-right without operator precedence. Use parentheses to
418 force the expression evaluation as you wish.
419 * Mark your segments across files.
420 Branching to a code segment that could be identified as BSS will cause a "Error: cannot initialize non-storage (BSS) section"
421 * In 68020+ mode **Zan** and **Zri** (register suppression) is not supported.
422 * rs.b/rs.w/rs.l/rscount/rsreset can be simulated in rmac using abs.
423 For example the following source:
433 size_so_far equ rscount
445 size_so_far equ ^^abscount
446 * A rare case: if your macro contains something like:
456 then by the assembler's design this will fail as the parameters are automatically converted to hex. Changing the code like this works:
468 For those using editors other than the "Emacs" style ones (Micro-Emacs, Mince,
469 etc.) this section documents the source file format that RMAC expects.
471 * Files must contain characters with ASCII values less than 128; it is not per-
472 missable to have characters with their high bits set unless those characters are
473 contained in strings (i.e. between single or double quotes) or in comments.
475 * Lines of text are terminated with carriage-return/line-feed, linefeed alone, or
476 carriage-return alone.
478 * The file is assumed to end with the last terminated line. If there is text beyond
479 the last line terminator (e.g. control-Z) it is ignored.
486 A statement may contain up to four fields which are identified by order of ap-
487 pearance and terminating characters. The general form of an assembler statement
492 label: operator operand(s) ; comment
494 The label and comment fields are optional. An operand field may not appear
495 without an operator field. Operands are seperated with commas. Blank lines are
496 legal. If the first character on a line is an asterisk (*) or semicolon (;) then the
497 entire line is a comment. A semicolon anywhere on the line (except in a string)
498 begins a comment field which extends to the end of the line.
500 The label, if it appears, must be terminated with a single or double colon. If
501 it is terminated with a double colon it is automatically declared global. It is illegal
502 to declare a confined symbol global (see: `Symbols and Scope`_).
504 As an addition, the exclamation mark character (**!**) can be placed at the very first
505 character of a line to disbale all optimisations for that specific line, i.e.
509 !label: operator operand(s) ; comment
513 A statement may also take one of these special forms:
515 *symbol* **equ** *expression*
517 *symbol* **=** *expression*
519 *symbol* **==** *expression*
521 *symbol* **set** *expression*
523 *symbol* **reg** *register list*
525 The first two forms are identical; they equate the symbol to the value of an
526 expression, which must be defined (no forward references). The third form, double-
527 equals (==), is just like an equate except that it also makes the symbol global. (As
528 with labels, it is illegal to make a confined equate global.) The fourth form allows
529 a symbol to be set to a value any number of times, like a variable. The last form
530 equates the symbol to a 16-bit register mask specified by a register list. It is possible
531 to equate confined symbols (see: `Symbols and Scope`_). For example:
535 cr equ 13 carriage-return
537 DEBUG == 1 global debug flag
539 count set count + 1 increment variable
540 .rags reg d3-d7/a3-a6 register list
541 .cr 13 confined equate
545 Symbols may start with an uppercase or lowercase letter (A-Z a-z), an underscore
546 (**_**), a question mark (**?**) or a period (**.**). Each remaining character may be an
547 upper or lowercase letter, a digit (**0-9**), an underscore, a dollar sign (**$**), or a question
548 mark. (Periods can only begin a symbol, they cannot appear as a symbol
549 continuation character). Symbols are terminated with a character that is not a
550 symbol continuation character (e.g. a period or comma, whitespace, etc.). Case is
551 significant for user-defined symbols, but not for 68000 mnemonics, assembler direc-
552 tives and register names. Symbols are limited to 100 characters. When symbols
553 are written to the object file they are silently truncated to eight (or sixteen) char-
554 acters (depending on the object file format) with no check for (or warnings about)
557 For example, all of the following symbols are legal and unique:
561 reallyLongSymbolName .reallyLongConfinedSymbolName
562 a10 ret move dc frog aa6 a9 ????
563 .a1 .ret .move .dc .frog .a9 .9 ????
564 .0 .00 .000 .1 .11. .111 . ._
565 _frog ?zippo? sys$syetem atari Atari ATARI aTaRi
567 while all of the following symbols are illegal:
571 12days dc.10 dc.z 'quote .right.here
572 @work hi.there $money$ ~tilde
575 Symbols beginning with a period (**.**) are *confined*; their scope is between two
576 normal (unconfined) labels. Confined symbols may be labels or equates. It is illegal
577 to make a confined symbol global (with the ".globl" directive, a double colon, or a
578 double equals). Only unconfined labels delimit a confined symbol's scope; equates
579 (of any kind) do not count. For example, all symbols are unique and have unique
580 values in the following:
591 .loop: move.w -1,(a0)+
595 Confined symbols are useful since the programmer has to be much less inventive
596 about finding small, unique names that also have meaning.
598 It is legal to define symbols that have the same names as processor mnemonics
599 (such as "**move**" or "**rts**") or assembler directives (such as "**.even**"). Indeed, one
600 should be careful to avoid typographical errors, such as this classic (in 6502 mode):
608 which equates a confined symbol to a hexadecimal value, rather than setting the
609 location counter, which the .org directive does (without the equals sign).
613 The following names, in all combinations of uppercase and lowercase, are keywords
614 and may not be used as symbols (e.g. labels, equates, or the names of macros):
622 d0 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7
623 a0 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
625 r0 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 r6 r7
626 r8 r9 r10 r11 r12 rl3 r14 ri5
634 Numbers may be decimal, hexadecimal, octal, binary or concatenated ASCII. The
635 default radix is decimal, and it may not be changed. Decimal numbers are specified
636 with a string of digits (**0-9**). Hexadecimal numbers are specified with a leading
637 dollar sign (**$**) followed by a string of digits and uppercase or lowercase letters (**A-F
638 a-f**). Octal numbers are specified with a leading at-sign (**@**) followed by a string
639 of octal digits (**0-7**). Binary numbers are specified with a leading percent sign
640 (**%**) followed by a string of binary digits (**0-1**). Concatenated ASCII constants are
641 specified by enclosing from one to four characters in single or double quotes. For
653 Negative numbers Are specified with a unary minus (**-**). For example:
662 Strings are contained between double (") or single ( ') quote marks. Strings may
663 contain non-printable characters by specifying "backslash" escapes, similar to the
664 ones used in the C programming language. RMAC will generate a warning if a
665 backslash is followed by a character not appearing below:
670 \n $0a line-feed (newline)
673 \r $0c1 carriage-return
679 It is possible for strings (but not symbols) to contain characters with their high
680 bits set (i.e. character codes 128...255).
682 You should be aware that backslash characters are popular in GEMDOS path
683 names, and that you may have to escape backslash characters in your existing source
684 code. For example, to get the file "'c:\\auto\\ahdi.s'" you would specify the string
685 "`c:\\\\auto\\\\ahdi.s`".
689 Register lists are special forms used with the **movem** mnemonic and the **.reg**
690 directive. They are 16-bit values, with bits 0 through 15 corresponding to registers
691 **D0** through **A7**. A register list consists of a series of register names or register
692 ranges seperated by slashes. A register range consists of two register names, Rm
693 and Rn,m<n, seperated by a dash. For example:
701 d0/d1/a0-a3/d7/a6-a7 $CF83
705 Register lists and register equates may be used in conjunction with the movem
706 mnemonic, as in this example:
710 temps reg d0-d2/a0-a2 ; temp registers
711 keeps reg d3-d7/d3-a6 ; registers to preserve
712 allregs reg d0-d7/a0-a7 ; all registers
713 movem.l #temps,-(sp) ; these two lines ...
714 movem.l d0-d2/a0-a2,-(sp) ; are identical
715 movem.l #keeps,-(sp) ; save "keep" registers
716 movem.l (sp)+,#keeps ; restore "keep" registers
721 `Order of Evaluation`_
722 ''''''''''''''''''''''
723 All values are computed with 32-bit 2's complement arithmetic. For boolean operations
724 (such as if or **assert**) zero is considered false, and non-zero is considered
727 **Expressions are evaluated strictly left-to-right, with no
728 regard for operator precedence.**
730 Thus the expression "1+2*3" evaluates to 9, not 7. However, precedence may be
731 forced with parenthesis (**()**) or square-brackets (**[]**).
735 Expressions belong to one of three classes: undefined, absolute or relocatable. An
736 expression is undefined if it involves an undefined symbol (e.g. an undeclared sym-
737 bol, or a forward reference). An expression is absolute if its value will not change
738 when the program is relocated (for instance, the number 0, all labels declared in
739 an abs section, and all Atari ST hardware register locations are absolute values).
740 An expression is relocatable if it involves exactly one symbol that is contained in a
741 text, data or BSS section.
743 Only absolute values may be used with operators other than addition (+) or
744 subtraction (-). It is illegal, for instance, to multiply or divide by a relocatable or
745 undefined value. Subtracting a relocatable value from another relocatable value in
746 the same section results in an absolute value (the distance between them, positive
747 or negative). Adding (or subtracting) an absolute value to or from a relocatable
748 value yeilds a relocatable value (an offset from the relocatable address).
750 It is important to realize that relocatable values belong to the sections they
751 are defined in (e.g. text, data or BSS), and it is not permissible to mix and match
752 sections. For example, in this code:
756 linel: dc.l line2, line1+8
757 line2: dc.l line1, line2-8
758 line3: dc.l line2-line1, 8
759 error: dc.l line1+line2, line2 >> 1, line3/4
761 Line 1 deposits two longwords that point to line 2. Line 2 deposits two longwords
762 that point to line 1. Line 3 deposits two longwords that have the absolute value
763 eight. The fourth line will result in an assembly error, since the expressions (re-
764 spectively) attempt to add two relocatable values, shift a relocatable value right by
765 one, and divide a relocatable value by four.
767 The pseudo-symbol "*****" (star) has the value that the current section's location
768 counter had at the beginning of the current source line. For example, these two
769 statements deposit three pointers to the label "**bar**":
776 Similarly, the pseudo-symbol "**$**" has the value that the current section's location
777 counter has, and it is kept up to date as the assembler deposits information
778 "across" a line of source code. For example, these two statements deposit four
779 pointers to the label "zip":
789 ================================ ==========================================
791 ================================ ==========================================
792 **-** Unary minus (2's complement).
793 **!** Logical (boolean) NOT.
794 **~** Tilde: bitwise not (l's complement).
795 **^^defined** *symbol* True if symbol has a value.
796 **^^referenced** *symbol* True if symbol has been referenced.
797 **^^streq** *stringl*,*string2* True if the strings are equal.
798 **^^macdef** *macroName* True if the macro is defined.
799 **^^abscount** Returns the size of current .abs section
800 **^^filesize** *string_filename* Returns the file size of supplied filename
801 ================================ ==========================================
803 * The boolean operators generate the value 1 if the expression is true, and 0 if it is not.
805 * A symbol is referenced if it is involved in an expression.
807 any combination of attributes: undefined and unreferenced, defined and unref-
808 erenced (i.e. declared but never used), undefined and referenced (in the case
809 of a forward or external reference), or defined and referenced.
816 =========== ==============================================
818 =========== ==============================================
819 \ + - * / The usual arithmetic operators.
820 % Modulo. Do *not* attempt to modulo by 0 or 1.
821 & | ^ Bit-wise **AND**, **OR** and **Exclusive-OR**.
822 << >> Bit-wise shift left and shift right.
823 < <= >= > Boolean magnitude comparisons.
825 <> != Boolean inequality.
826 =========== ==============================================
828 * All binary operators have the same precedence:
829 expressions are evaluated strictly left to right.
831 * Division or modulo by zero yields an assembly error.
833 * The "<>" and "!=" operators are synonyms.
835 * Note that the modulo operator (%) is also used to introduce binary constants
836 (see: `Constants`_). A percent sign should be followed by at least one space if
837 it is meant to be a modulo operator, and is followed by a '0' or '1'.
842 ============ =========================================
843 Special Form Description
844 ============ =========================================
845 **^^date** The current system date (Gemdos format).
846 **^^time** The current system time (Gemdos format).
847 ============ =========================================
849 * The "**^^date**" special form expands to the current system date, in Gemdos
850 format. The format is a 16-bit word with bits 0 ...4 indicating the day of the
851 month (1...31), bits 5...8 indicating the month (1...12), and bits 9...15
852 indicating the year since 1980, in the range 0...119.
854 * The "**^^time**" special form expands to the current system time, in Gemdos
855 format. The format is a 16-bit word with bits 0...4 indicating the current
856 second divided by 2, bits 5...10 indicating the current minute 0...59. and
857 bits 11...15 indicating the current hour 0...23.
859 `Example Expressions`_
860 ''''''''''''''''''''''
864 line address contents source code
865 ---- ------- -------- -------------------------------
866 1 00000000 4480 lab1: neg.l d0
867 2 00000002 427900000000 lab2: clr.w lab1
868 3 =00000064 equ1 = 100
869 4 =00000096 equ2 = equ1 + 50
870 5 00000008 00000064 dc.l lab1 + equ1
871 6 0000000C 7FFFFFE6 dc.l (equl + ~equ2) >> 1
872 7 00000010 0001 dc.w ^^defined equl
873 8 00000012 0000 dc.w ^^referenced lab2
874 9 00000014 00000002 dc.l lab2
875 10 00000018 0001 dc.w ^^referenced lab2
876 11 0000001A 0001 dc.w lab1 = (lab2 - 6)
878 Lines 1 through four here are used to set up the rest of the example. Line 5 deposits
879 a relocatable pointer to the location 100 bytes beyond the label "**lab1**". Line 6 is
880 a nonsensical expression that uses the and right-shift operators. Line 7 deposits
881 a word of 1 because the symbol "**equ1**" is defined (in line 3).
883 Line 8 deposits a word of 0 because the symbol "**lab2**", defined in line 2, has
884 not been referenced. But the expression in line 9 references the symbol "**lab2**", so
885 line 10 (which is a copy of line-8) deposits a word of 1. Finally, line 11 deposits a
886 word of 1 because the Boolean equality operator evaluates to true.
888 The operators "**^^defined**" and "**^^referenced**" are particularly useful in
889 conditional assembly. For instance, it is possible to automatically include debugging
890 code if the debugging code is referenced, as in:
894 lea string,a0 ; AO -> message
895 jsr debug ; print a message
897 string: dc.b "Help me, Spock!",0 ; (the message)
901 .iif ^^defined debug, .include "debug.s"
903 The **jsr** statement references the symbol debug. Near the end of the source file, the
904 "**.iif**" statement includes the file "**debug.s**" if the symbol debug was referenced.
906 In production code, presumably all references to the debug symbol will be removed,
907 and the debug source file will not be included. (We could have as easily made the
908 symbol **debug** external, instead of including another source file).
914 Assembler directives may be any mix of upper- or lowercase. The leading periods
915 are optional, though they are shown here and their use is encouraged. Directives
916 may be preceeded by a label; the label is defined before the directive is executed.
917 Some directives accept size suffixes (**.b**, **.s**, **.w** or **.1**); the default is word (**.w**) if no
918 size is specified. The **.s** suffix is identical to **.b**. Directives relating to the 6502 are
919 described in the chapter on `6502 Support`_.
925 If the location counter for the current section is odd, make it even by adding
926 one to it. In text and data sections a zero byte is deposited if necessary.
930 Align the program counter to the next integral long boundary (4 bytes).
931 Note that GPU/DSP code sections are not contained in their own
932 segments and are actually part of the TEXT or DATA segments.
933 Therefore, to align GPU/DSP code, align the current section before and
934 after the GPU/DSP code.
938 Align the program counter to the next integral phrase boundary (8 bytes).
939 Note that GPU/DSP code sections are not contained in their own
940 segments and are actually part of the TEXT or DATA segments.
941 Therefore, to align GPU/DSP code, align the current section before and
942 after the GPU/DSP code.
946 Align the program counter to the next integral double phrase boundary (16
947 bytes). Note that GPU/DSP code sections are not contained in their own
948 segments and are actually part of the TEXT or DATA segments.
949 Therefore, to align GPU/DSP code, align the current section before and
950 after the GPU/DSP code.
954 Align the program counter to the next integral quad phrase boundary (32
955 bytes). Note that GPU/DSP code sections are not contained in their own
956 segments and are actually part of the TEXT or DATA segments.
957 Therefore, to align GPU/DSP code, align the current section before and
958 after the GPU/DSP code.
960 **.assert** *expression* [,\ *expression*...]
962 Assert that the conditions are true (non-zero). If any of the comma-seperated
963 expressions evaluates to zero an assembler warning is issued. For example:
967 .assert *-start = $76
968 .assert stacksize >= $400
976 Switch to the BSS, data or text segments. Instructions and data may not
977 be assembled into the BSS-segment, but symbols may be defined and storage
978 may be reserved with the **.ds** directive. Each assembly starts out in the text
987 Enable different flavours of the MC68000 family of CPUs. Bear in mind that not all
988 instructions and addressing modes are available in all CPUs so the correct CPU
989 should be selected at all times. Notice that it is possible to switch CPUs
995 Enable FPU support. Note that *.68882* is on by default when selecting *.68030*.
999 Switch to Motorola DSP56001 mode.
1001 **.abs** [*location*]
1003 Start an absolute section, beginning with the specified location (or zero, if
1004 no location is specified). An absolute section is much like BSS, except that
1005 locations declared with .ds are based absolute. This directive is useful for
1007 declaring structures or hardware locations.
1008 For example, the following equates:
1018 could be as easily defined as:
1029 Another interesting example worth mentioning is the emulation of "C"'s "union" keyword
1030 using *.abs*. For example, the following "C" code:
1040 union { int spf_em_colour; int spf_emx_colour; };
1041 union { int spf_em_psmask[16]; int spf_emx_colouropt; };
1044 can be expressed as:
1049 *-------------------------------------------------------*
1050 spf_w: ds.w 1 ;<- common
1055 *-------------------------------------------------------*
1057 spf_em_colour: ds.l 1 ;<- union #1
1058 spf_em_psmask: ds.l 16
1059 *-------------------------------------------------------*
1063 spf_emx_colour: ds.l 1 ;<- union #2
1064 spf_emx_colouropt: ds.l 1
1065 spf_emx_psmask: ds.l 16
1066 spf_emx_psmaskopt: ds.l 16
1069 ;*-------------------------------------------------------*
1071 move #spf_em_colour,d0
1072 move #spf_emx_colour,d0
1074 In this example, *spf_em_colour* and *spf_emx_colour* will have the same value.
1076 **.comm** *symbol*, *expression*
1078 Specifies a label and the size of a common region. The label is made global,
1079 thus confined symbols cannot be made common. The linker groups all common
1080 regions of the same name; the largest size determines the real size of the
1081 common region when the file is linked.
1083 **.ccdef** *expression*
1085 Allows you to define names for the condition codes used by the JUMP
1086 and JR instructions for GPU and DSP code. For example:
1092 jump Always,(r3) ; 'Always' is actually 0
1094 **.ccundef** *regname*
1096 Undefines a register name (regname) previously assigned using the
1097 .CCDEF directive. This is only implemented in GPU and DSP code
1100 **.dc.i** *expression*
1102 This directive generates long data values and is similar to the DC.L
1103 directive, except the high and low words are swapped. This is provided
1104 for use with the GPU/DSP MOVEI instruction.
1106 **.dc**\ [.\ *size*] *expression* [, *expression*...]
1108 Deposit initialized storage in the current section. If the specified size is word
1109 or long, the assembler will execute a .even before depositing data. If the size
1110 is .b, then strings that are not part of arithmetic expressions are deposited
1111 byte-by-byte. If no size is specified, the default is .w. This directive cannot be
1112 used in the BSS section.
1114 **.dcb**\ [.\ *size*] *expression1*, *expression2*
1116 Generate an initialized block of *expression1* bytes, words or longwords of the
1117 value *expression2*. If the specified size is word or long, the assembler will
1118 execute .even before generating data. If no size is specified, the default is **.w**.
1119 This directive cannot be used in the BSS section.
1121 **.ds**\ [.\ *size*] *expression*
1123 Reserve space in the current segment for the appropriate number of bytes,
1124 words or longwords. If no size is specified, the default size is .w. If the size
1125 is word or long, the assembler will execute .even before reserving space.
1129 Switch to Jaguar DSP assembly mode. This directive must be used
1130 within the TEXT or DATA segments.
1132 **.init**\ [.\ *size*] [#\ *expression*,]\ *expression*\ [.\ *size*] [,...]
1134 Generalized initialization directive. The size specified on the directive becomes
1135 the default size for the rest of the line. (The "default" default size is **.w**.) A
1136 comma-seperated list of expressions follows the directive; an expression may be
1137 followed by a size to override the default size. An expression may be preceeded
1138 by a sharp sign, an expression and a comma, which specifies a repeat count to
1139 be applied to the next expression. For example:
1143 .init.l -1, 0.w, #16,'z'.b, #3,0, 11.b
1145 will deposit a longword of -1, a word of zero, sixteen bytes of lower-case 'z',
1146 three longwords of zero, and a byte of 11.
1148 No auto-alignment is performed within the line, but a **.even** is done once
1149 (before the first value is deposited) if the default size is word or long.
1151 **.cargs** [#\ *expression*,] *symbol*\ [.\ *size*] [, *symbol*\ [.\ *size*].. .]
1153 Compute stack offsets to C (and other language) arguments. Each symbol is
1154 assigned an absolute value (like equ) which starts at expression and increases
1155 by the size of each symbol, for each symbol. If the expression is not supplied,
1156 the default starting value is 4. For example:
1160 .cargs #8, .fileliams.1, .openMode, .butPointer.l
1162 could be used to declare offsets from A6 to a pointer to a filename, a word
1163 containing an open mode, and a pointer to a buffer. (Note that the symbols
1164 used here are confined). Another example, a C-style "string-length" function,
1165 could be written as:
1169 _strlen:: .cargs .string ; declare arg
1170 move.l .string(sp),a0 ; a0 -> string
1171 moveq #-1,d0 ; initial size = -1
1172 .1: addq.1 #1,d0 ; bump size
1173 tst.b (a0)+ ; at end of string?
1174 bne .1 ; (no -- try again)
1175 rts ; return string length
1179 End the assembly. In an include file, end the include file and resume assembling
1180 the superior file. This statement is not required, nor are warning messages
1181 generated if it is missing at the end of a file. This directive may be used inside
1182 conditional assembly, macros or **.rept** blocks.
1184 **.equr** *expression*
1186 Allows you to name a register. This is only implemented for GPU/DSP
1187 code sections. For example:
1193 add ClipW,r0 ; ClipW actually is r19
1195 **.if** *expression*
1201 Start a block of conditional assembly. If the expression is true (non-zero) then
1202 assemble the statements between the .if and the matching **.endif** or **.else**.
1203 If the expression is false, ignore the statements unless a matching .else is
1204 encountered. Conditional assembly may be nested to any depth.
1206 It is possible to exit a conditional assembly block early from within an include
1207 file (with **end**) or a macro (with **endm**).
1209 **.iif** *expression*, *statement*
1211 Immediate version of **.if**. If the expression is true (non-zero) then the state-
1212 ment, which may be an instruction, a directive or a macro, is executed. If
1213 the expression is false, the statement is ignored. No **.endif** is required. For
1218 .iif age < 21, canDrink = 0
1219 .iif weight > 500, dangerFlag = 1
1220 .iif !(^^defined DEBUG), .include dbsrc
1222 **.macro** *name* [*formal*, *formal*,...]
1228 Define a macro called name with the specified formal arguments. The macro
1229 definition is terminated with a **.endm** statement. A macro may be exited early
1230 with the .exitm directive. See the chapter on `Macros`_ for more information.
1232 **.undefmac** *macroName* [, *macroName*...]
1234 Remove the macro-definition for the specified macro names. If reference is
1235 made to a macro that is not defined, no error message is printed and the name
1238 **.rept** *expression*
1242 The statements between the **.rept** and **.endr** directives will be repeated *expression*
1243 times. If the expression is zero or negative, no statements will be
1244 assembled. No label may appear on a line containing either of these directives.
1246 **.globl** *symbol* [, *symbol*...]
1248 **.extern** *symbol* [, *symbol*...]
1250 Each symbol is made global. None of the symbols may be confined symbols
1251 (those starting with a period). If the symbol is defined in the assembly, the
1252 symbol is exported in the object file. If the symbol is undefined at the end
1253 of the assembly, and it was referenced (i.e. used in an expression), then the
1254 symbol value is imported as an external reference that must be resolved by the
1255 linker. The **.extern** directive is merely a synonym for **.globl**.
1257 **.include** "*file*"
1259 Include a file. If the filename is not enclosed in quotes, then a default extension
1260 of "**.s**" is applied to it. If the filename is quoted, then the name is not changed
1263 Note: If the filename is not a valid symbol, then the assembler will generate an
1264 error message. You should enclose filenames such as "**atari.s**" in quotes,
1265 because such names are not symbols.
1267 If the include file cannot be found in the current directory, then the directory
1268 search path, as specified by -i on the commandline, or' by the 'RMACPATH'
1269 enviroment string, is traversed.
1273 Issue a page eject in the listing file.
1275 **.title** "*string*"
1277 **.subttl** [-] "*string*"
1279 Set the title or subtitle on the listing page. The title should be specified on
1280 the the first line of the source program in order to take effect on the first page.
1281 The second and subsequent uses of **.title** will cause page ejects. The second
1282 and subsequent uses of .subttl will cause page ejects unless the subtitle string
1283 is preceeded by a dash (-).
1289 Enable or disable source code listing. These directives increment and decrement
1290 an internal counter, so they may be appropriately nested. They have no effect
1291 if the **-l** switch is not specified on the commandline.
1295 This directive provides unstructured flow of control within a macro definition.
1296 It will transfer control to the line of the macro containing the specified goto
1297 label. A goto label is a symbol preceeded by a colon that appears in the first
1298 column of a source line within a macro definition:
1302 where the label itself can be any valid symbol name, followed immediately by
1303 whitespace and a valid source line (or end of line). The colon **must** appear in
1306 The goto-label is removed from the source line prior to macro expansion -
1307 to all intents and purposes the label is invisible except to the .goto directive
1308 Macro expansion does not take place within the label.
1310 For example, here is a silly way to count from 1 to 10 without using **.rept**:
1318 iif count <= 10, goto loop
1323 Switch to Jaguar GPU assembly mode. This directive must be used
1324 within the TEXT or DATA segments.
1328 No. Just... no. Don't ask about it. Ever.
1330 **.prgflags** *value*
1332 Sets ST executable .PRG field *PRGFLAGS* to *value*. *PRGFLAGS* is a bit field defined as follows:
1334 ============ ====== =======
1335 Definition Bit(s) Meaning
1336 ============ ====== =======
1337 PF_FASTLOAD 0 If set, clear only the BSS area on program load, otherwise clear the entire heap.
1338 PF_TTRAMLOAD 1 If set, the program may be loaded into alternative RAM, otherwise it must be loaded into standard RAM.
1339 PF_TTRAMMEM 2 If set, the program's Malloc() requests may be satisfied from alternative RAM, otherwise they must be satisfied from standard RAM.
1340 -- 3 Currently unused.
1341 See left. 4 & 5 If these bits are set to 0 (PF_PRIVATE), the processes' entire memory space will be considered private (when memory protection is enabled).If these bits are set to 1 (PF_GLOBAL), the processes' entire memory space will be readable and writable by any process (i.e. global).If these bits are set to 2 (PF_SUPERVISOR), the processes' entire memory space will only be readable and writable by itself and any other process in supervisor mode.If these bits are set to 3 (PF_READABLE), the processes' entire memory space will be readable by any application but only writable by itself.
1342 -- 6-15 Currently unused.
1343 ============ ====== =======
1345 **.regequ** *expression*
1346 Essentially the same as **.EQUR.** Included for compatibility with the GASM
1350 Essentially the same as **.EQURUNDEF.** Included for compatibility with
1359 All of the standard Motorola 68000 mnemonics and addressing modes are supported;
1360 you should refer to **The Motorola M68000 Programmer's Reference Manual**
1361 for a description of the instruction set and the allowable addressing modes for each
1362 instruction. With one major exception (forward branches) the assembler performs
1363 all the reasonable optimizations of instructions to their short or address register
1366 Register names may be in upper or lower case. The alternate forms ``R0`` through
1367 ``R15`` may be used to specify ``D0`` through ``A7``. All register names are keywords, and
1368 may not be used as labels or symbols. None of the 68010 or 68020 register names
1369 are keywords (but they may become keywords in the future).
1374 ===================================== ===========================================
1375 Assembler Syntax Description
1376 ===================================== ===========================================
1377 *Dn* Data register direct
1378 *An* Address register direct
1379 (*An*) Address register indirect
1380 (*An*)+ Address register indirect postincrement
1381 -(*An*) Address register indirect predecrement
1382 *disp*\ (*An*) Address register indirect with displacement
1383 *bdisp*\ (*An*, *Xi*\ [.\ *size*]) Address register indirect indexed
1384 *abs*.w Absolute short
1385 *abs* Absolute (long or short)
1386 *abs*.l Forced absolute long
1387 *disp*\ (PC) Program counter with displacement
1388 *bdisp*\ (PC, *Xi*\ ) Program counter indexed
1390 ===================================== ===========================================
1392 `68020+ Addressing Modes`_
1393 ''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1395 The following addressing modes are only valid for 68020 and newer CPUs. In these
1396 modes most of the parameters like Base Displacement (**bd**), Outer Displacement
1397 (**od**), Base Register (**An**) and Index Register (**Xn**) can be omitted. RMAC
1398 will detect this and *suppress* the registers in the produced code.
1401 use a special syntax to denote register suppression like **Zan** to suppress the Base
1402 Register and **Rin** to suppress the Index Register. RMAC has no support for this
1403 behaviour nor needs it to suppress registers.
1405 In addition, other assemblers will allow reordering of the parameters (for example
1406 ([*An*,\ *bd*])). This is not allowed in RMAC.
1408 Also noteworthy is that the Index Register can be an address or data register.
1410 To avoid internal confusion the 68040/68060 registers *DC*, *IC* and *BC* are named
1411 *DC40*, *IC40* and *BC40* respectively.
1413 ====================================================== =============================================================
1414 Assembler Syntax Description
1415 ====================================================== =============================================================
1416 *bd*\ (*An*, *Xi*\ [.\ *size*][*\*scale*]) Address register indirect indexed
1417 ([*bd*,\ *An*],\ *Xn*\[.\ *siz*][*\*scale*],\ *od*) Register indirect preindexed with outer displacement
1418 ([*bd*,\ *An*,\ *Xn*\[.\ *siz*][*\*scale*],\ *od*) Register indirect postindexed with outer displacement
1419 ([*bd*,\ *PC*],\ *Xn*\[.\ *siz*][*\*scale*],\ *od*) Program counter indirect preindexed with outer displacement
1420 ([*bd*,\ *PC*,\ *Xn*\[.\ *siz*][*\*scale*],\ *od*) Program counter indirect postindexed with outer displacement
1421 ====================================================== =============================================================
1425 Since RMAC is a one pass assembler, forward branches cannot be automatically
1426 optimized to their short form. Instead, unsized forward branches are assumed to
1427 be long. Backward branches are always optimized to the short form if possible.
1429 A table that lists "extra" branch mnemonics (common synonyms for the Motorola
1430 defined mnemonics) appears below.
1432 `Linker Constraints`_
1433 '''''''''''''''''''''
1434 It is not possible to make an external reference that will fix up a byte. For example:
1439 move.l frog(pc,d0),d1
1441 is illegal (and generates an assembly error) when frog is external, because the
1442 displacement occupies a byte field in the 68000 offset word, which the object file
1447 ============== ========
1448 Alternate name Becomes:
1449 ============== ========
1459 ============== ========
1461 `Optimizations and Translations`_
1462 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1463 The assembler provides "creature comforts" when it processes 68000 mnemonics:
1465 * **CLR.x An** will really generate **SUB.x An,An**.
1467 * **ADD**, **SUB** and **CMP** with an address register will really generate **ADDA**,
1468 **SUBA** and **CMPA**.
1470 * The **ADD**, **AND**, **CMP**, **EOR**, **OR** and **SUB** mnemonics with immediate
1471 first operands will generate the "I" forms of their instructions (**ADDI**, etc.) if
1472 the second operand is not register direct.
1474 * All shift instructions with no count value assume a count of one.
1476 * **MOVE.L** is optimized to **MOVEQ** if the immediate operand is defined and
1477 in the range -128...127. However, **ADD** and **SUB** are never translated to
1478 their quick forms; **ADDQ** and **SUBQ** must be explicit.
1480 * In GPU/DSP code sections, you can use JUMP (Rx) in place of JUMP T, (Rx) and JR
1481 (Rx) in place of JR T,(Rx).
1483 * RMAC tests all GPU/DSP restrictions and corrects them wherever possible (such as
1484 inserting a NOP instruction when needed).
1486 * The *(Rx+N)* addressing mode for GPU/DSP instructions is optimized to *(Rx)*
1491 `Macro declaration`_
1492 ''''''''''''''''''''
1493 A macro definition is a series of statements of the form:
1496 .macro name [ formal-arg, ...]
1500 statements making up the macro body
1506 The name of the macro may be any valid symbol that is not also a 68000 instruction
1507 or an assembler directive. (The name may begin with a period - macros cannot
1508 be made confined the way labels or equated symbols can be). The formal argument
1509 list is optional; it is specified with a comma-seperated list of valid symbol names.
1510 Note that there is no comma between the name of the macro and the name of the
1511 first formal argument. It is not advised to begin an argument name with a numeric
1514 A macro body begins on the line after the **.macro** directive. All instructions
1515 and directives, except other macro definitions, are legal inside the body.
1517 The macro ends with the **.endm** statement. If a label appears on the line with
1518 this directive, the label is ignored and a warning is generated.
1520 `Parameter Substitution`_
1521 '''''''''''''''''''''''''
1522 Within the body, formal parameters may be expanded with the special forms:
1528 The second form (enclosed in braces) can be used in situations where the characters
1529 following the formal parameter name are valid symbol continuation characters. This
1530 is usually used to force concatentation, as in:
1535 \(godzilla}vs\{reagan}
1537 The formal parameter name is terminated with a character that is not valid in
1538 a symbol (e.g. whitespace or puncuation); optionally, the name may be enclosed in
1539 curly-braces. The names must be symbols appearing on the formal argument list,
1540 or a single decimal digit (``\1`` corresponds to the first argument, ``\2`` to the second,
1541 ``\9`` to the ninth, and ``\0`` to the tenth). It is possible for a macro to have more than
1542 ten formal arguments, but arguments 11 and on must be referenced by name, not
1545 Other special forms are:
1547 ============ ================================================
1548 Special Form Description
1549 ============ ================================================
1550 ``\\`` a single "\",
1551 ``\~`` a unique label of the form "Mn"
1552 ``\#`` the number of arguments actually specified
1553 ``\!`` the "dot-size" specified on the macro invocation
1554 ``\?name`` conditional expansion
1555 ``\?{name}`` conditional expansion
1556 ============ ================================================
1558 The last two forms are identical: if the argument is specified and is non-empty, the
1559 form expands to a "1", otherwise (if the argument is missing or empty) the form
1562 The form "``\!``" expands to the "dot-size" that was specified when the macro
1563 was invoked. This can be used to write macros that behave differently depending
1564 on the size suffix they are given, as in this macro which provides a synonym for the
1569 .macro deposit value
1572 deposit.b 1 ; byte of 1
1573 deposit.w 2 ; word of 2
1574 deposit.l 3 ; longvord of 3
1575 deposit 4 ; word of 4 (no explicit size)
1579 A previously-defined macro is called when its name appears in the operation field of
1580 a statement. Arguments may be specified following the macro name; each argument
1581 is seperated by a comma. Arguments may be empty. Arguments are stored for
1582 substitution in the macro body in the following manner:
1584 * Numbers are converted to hexadecimal.
1586 * All spaces outside strings are removed.
1588 * Keywords (such as register names, dot sizes and "^^" operators) are converted
1591 * Strings are enclosed in double-quote marks (").
1593 For example, a hypothetical call to the macro "``mymacro``", of the form:
1594 ``mymacro A0, , 'Zorch' / 32, "^^DEFINED foo, , , tick tock``
1596 will result in the translations:
1598 ======== ================= =================================================
1599 Argument Expansion Comment
1600 ======== ================= =================================================
1601 ``\1`` ``a0`` "``A0``" converted to lower-case
1603 ``\3`` ``"Zorch"/$20`` "``Zorch``" in double-quotes, 32 in hexadecimal
1604 ``\4`` ``^^defined foo`` "``^^DEFINED``" converted to lower-case
1607 ``\7`` ``ticktock`` spaces removed (note concatenation)
1608 ======== ================= =================================================
1610 The **.exitm** directive will cause an immediate exit from a macro body. Thus
1611 the macro definition:
1616 .iif !\?source, .exitm ; exit if source is empty
1617 move \source,d0 ; otherwise, deposit source
1620 will not generate the move instruction if the argument **"source"** is missing from
1621 the macro invocation.
1623 The **.end**, **.endif** and **.exitm** directives all pop-out of their include levels
1624 appropriately. That is, if a macro performs a **.include** to include a source file, an
1625 executed **.exitm** directive within the include-file will pop out of both the include-file
1628 Macros may be recursive or mutually recursive to any level, subject only to
1629 the availability of memory. When writing recursive macros, take care in the coding
1630 of the termination condition(s). A macro that repeatedly calls itself will cause the
1631 assembler to exhaust its memory and abort the assembly.
1636 The Gemdos macro is used to make file system calls. It has two parameters, a
1637 function number and the number of bytes to clean off the stack after the call. The
1638 macro pushes the function number onto the stack and does the trap to the file
1639 system. After the trap returns, conditional assembly is used to choose an addq or
1640 an **add.w** to remove the arguments that were pushed.
1644 .macro Gemdos trpno, clean
1645 move.w #\trpno,-(sp) ; push trap number
1646 trap #1 ; do GEMDOS trap
1648 addq #\clean,sp ; clean-up up to 8 bytes
1650 add.w #\clean,sp ; clean-up more than 8 bytes
1654 The Fopen macro is supplied two arguments; the address of a filename, and
1655 the open mode. Note that plain move instructions are used, and that the caller of
1656 the macro must supply an appropriate addressing mode (e.g. immediate) for each
1661 .macro Fopen file, mode
1662 movs.w \mode,-(sp) ;push open mode
1663 move.1 \file,-(sp) ;push address of tile name
1664 Gemdos $3d,8 ;do the GEMDOS call
1667 The **String** macro is used to allocate storage for a string, and to place the
1668 string's address somewhere. The first argument should be a string or other expres-
1669 sion acceptable in a dc.b directive. The second argument is optional; it specifies
1670 where the address of the string should be placed. If the second argument is omitted,
1671 the string's address is pushed onto the stack. The string data itself is kept in the
1676 .macro String str,loc
1677 .if \?loc ; if loc is defined
1678 move.l #.\~,\loc ; put the string's address there
1680 pea .\~ ; push the string's address
1682 .data ; put the string data
1683 .\~: dc.b \str,0 ; in the data segment
1684 .text ; and switch back to the text segment
1687 The construction "``.\~``" will expand to a label of the form "``.M``\ *n*" (where *n* is
1688 a unique number for every macro invocation), which is used to tag the location of
1689 the string. The label should be confined because the macro may be used along with
1690 other confined symbols.
1692 Unique symbol generation plays an important part in the art of writing fine
1693 macros. For instance, if we needed three unique symbols, we might write "``.a\~``",
1694 "``.b\~``" and "``.c\~``".
1698 Repeat-blocks provide a simple iteration capability. A repeat block allows a range
1699 of statements to be repeated a specified number of times. For instance, to generate
1700 a table consisting of the numbers 255 through 0 (counting backwards) you could
1705 .count set 255 ; initialize counter
1706 .rept 256 ; repeat 256 times:
1707 dc.b .count ; deposit counter
1708 .count set .count - 1 ; and decrement it
1709 .endr ; (end of repeat block)
1711 Repeat blocks can also be used to duplicate identical pieces of code (which are
1712 common in bitmap-graphics routines). For example:
1716 .rept 16 ; clear 16 words
1717 clr.w (a0)+ ; starting at AO
1720 `Jaguar GPU/DSP Mode`_
1721 ======================
1723 RMAC will generate code for the Atari Jaguar GPU and DSP custom RISC (Reduced
1724 Instruction Set Computer) processors. See the Atari Jaguar Software reference Manual - Tom
1725 & Jerry for a complete listing of Jaguar GPU and DSP assembler mnemonics and addressing
1730 The following condition codes for the GPU/DSP JUMP and JR instructions are built-in:
1734 CC (Carry Clear) = %00100
1735 CS (Carry Set) = %01000
1738 NE (Not Equal) = %00001
1740 HI (Higher) = %00101
1743 `Jaguar Object Processor Mode`_
1744 ===============================
1749 An assembler to generate object lists for the Atari Jaguar's Object processor.
1755 To really utilize the OP properly, it needs an assembler. Otherwise, what
1756 happens is you end up writing an assembler in your code to assemble the OP
1757 list, and that's a real drag--something that *should* be handled by a proper
1762 ''''''''''''''''''''
1764 The OP assembler works similarly to the RISC assembler; to enter the OP
1765 assembler, you put the .objproc directive in your code (N.B.: like the RISC
1766 assembler, it only works in a TEXT or DATA section). From there, you build
1767 the OP list how you want it and go from there. A few caveats: you will want
1768 to put a .org directive at the top of your list, and labels that you want to
1769 be able to address in 68xxx code (for moving from a data section to an
1770 address where it will be executed by the OP, for example) should be created
1774 `What are the opcodes?`_
1775 ''''''''''''''''''''''''
1777 They are **bitmap**, **scbitmap**, **gpuobj**, **branch**, **stop**, **nop**, and **jump**. **nop** and **jump**
1778 are psuedo-ops, they are there as a convenience to the coder.
1781 `What are the proper forms for these opcodes?`_
1782 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1784 They are as follows:
1786 **bitmap** *data addr*, *xloc*, *yloc*, *dwidth*, *iwidth*, *iheight*, *bpp*,
1787 *pallete idx*, *flags*, *firstpix*, *pitch*
1789 **scbitmap** *data addr*, *xloc*, *yloc*, *dwidth*, *iwidth*, *iheight*,
1790 *xscale*, *yscale*, *remainder*, *bpp*, *pallete idx*,
1791 *flags*, *firstpix*, *pitch*
1793 **gpuobj** *line #*, *userdata* (bits 14-63 of this object)
1795 **branch** VC *condition (<, =, >)* *line #*, *link addr*
1797 **branch** OPFLAG, *link addr*
1799 **branch** SECHALF, *link addr*
1805 **jump** *link addr*
1807 Note that the *flags* field in bitmap and scbitmap objects consist of the
1808 following: **REFLECT**, **RMW**, **TRANS**, **RELEASE**. They can be in any order (and
1809 should be separated by whitespace **only**), and you can only put a maximum of
1810 four of them in. Further note that with bitmap and scbitmap objects, all the
1811 parameters after *data addr* are optional--if they are omitted, they will
1812 use defaults (mostly 0, but 1 is the default for pitch). Also, in the
1813 scbitmap object, the *xscale*, *yscale*, and *remainder* fields can be
1814 floating point constants/expressions. *data addr* can refer to any address
1815 defined (even external!) and the linker (rln v1.6.0 or greater) will
1816 properly fix up the address.
1822 Pretty much what you expect. It's beyond the scope of this little note to
1823 explain the Jaguar's Object Processor and how it operates, so you'll have to
1824 seek explanations for how they work elsewhere.
1827 `Why do I want to put a *.org* directive at the top of my list?`_
1828 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1830 You want to put a *.org* directive at the top of your list because otherwise
1831 the assembler will not know where in memory the object list is supposed
1832 go--then when you move it to its destination, the object link addresses will
1833 all be wrong and it won't work.
1836 `Why would I copy my object list to another memory location?`_
1837 ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1839 Simple: because the OP destroys the list as it uses it to render the screen.
1840 If you don't keep a fresh copy stashed away somewhere to refresh it before
1841 the next frame is rendered, what you see on the screen will not be what you
1842 expect, as the OP has scribbled all over it!
1845 `Does the assembler do anything behind my back?`_
1846 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1848 Yes, it will emit **NOP** s to ensure that bitmaps and scbitmaps are on proper
1849 memory boundaries, and fixup link addresses as necessary. This is needed
1850 because of a quirk in how the OP works (it ORs constants on the address
1851 lines to get the phrases it needs and if they are not zeroes, it will fail
1852 in bizarre ways). It will also set all *ypos* constants on the correct
1853 half-line (as that's how the OP views them).
1856 `Why can't I define the link addresses for all the objects?`_
1857 '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1859 You really, *really* don't want to do this. Trust me on this one.
1861 `How about an example of an object list?`_
1862 ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1870 objects: ; This is the label you will use to address this in 68K code
1871 .objproc ; Engage the OP assembler
1872 .org objList ; Tell the OP assembler where the list will execute
1874 branch VC < 69, .stahp ; Branch to the STOP object if VC < 69
1875 branch VC > 241, .stahp ; Branch to the STOP object if VC > 241
1876 bitmap bRAM, 22, 70, 24, 24, 22, 4
1877 bitmap bRAM, 20+96+96, 70, 24, 24, 22, 4, 0, REFLECT
1878 scbitmap tms, 20, 70, 1, 1, 8, 3.0, 3.0, 2.9999, 0, 0, TRANS
1879 scbitmap tmsShadow, 23, 73, 1, 1, 8, 3.0, 3.0, 2.9999, 0, 3, TRANS
1880 bitmap sbRelBM, 30, 108, 3, 3, 8, 0, 1, TRANS
1881 bitmap txt1BM, 46, 132, 3, 3, 8, 0, 2, TRANS
1882 bitmap txt2BM, 46, 148, 3, 3, 8, 0, 2, TRANS
1883 bitmap txt3BM, 22, 164, 3, 3, 8, 0, 2, TRANS
1894 RMAC fully supports Motorola's DSP56001 as used on the Atari Falcon and can output
1895 binary code in the two most popular formats: *.lod* (ASCII dump, supported by the
1896 Atari Falcon XBIOS) and *.p56* (binary equivalent of *.lod*)
1898 `Differences from Motorola's assembler`_
1899 ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1901 - Motorola's assembler aliases **and #xxx,reg** with **andi #xxx,reg** and can
1902 distinguish between the two. rmac needs the user to be explicit and will
1903 generate an error if the programmer tries to use syntax from one instruction
1905 - Similarly Motorola's assembler can alias **move** with **movec**, **movep**
1906 and **movem**. rmac also not accept such aliasing and generate an error.
1907 - Motorola's assembler uses the underscore character (*_*) to define local
1908 labels. In order for rmac to maintain a uniform syntax across all platforms,
1909 such labels will not be treated as local.
1910 - Macros syntax is different from Motorola's assembler. This includes local
1911 labels inside macros. The user is encouraged to study the `Macros`_ section
1912 and compare syntactical differences.
1913 - Motorola's assembler allows reordering of addressing modes **x:**, **x:r**,
1914 **r:y**, **x:y**. rmac will only accept syntax as is defined on the reference
1916 - In **l:** section a dc value cannot be 12 hex digits like Motorola's assmebler.
1917 Instead, the value needs to be split into two parts separated by **:**.
1921 RMAC will generate code for the Motorola 6502 microprocessor. This chapter
1922 describes extra addressing modes and directives used to support the 6502.
1924 As the 6502 object code is not linkable (currently there is no linker) external
1925 references may not be made. (Nevertheless, RMAC may reasonably be used for
1926 large assemblies because of its blinding speed.)
1928 `6502 Addressing Modes`_
1929 ''''''''''''''''''''''''
1930 All standard 6502 addressing modes are supported, with the exception of the
1931 accumulator addressing form, which must be omitted (e.g. "ror a" becomes "ror").
1932 Five extra modes, synonyms for existing ones, are included for compatibility with
1933 the Atari Coinop assembler.
1935 ============== ========================================
1936 *empty* implied or accumulator (e.g. tsx or ror)
1937 *expr* absolute or zeropage
1939 #<\ *expr* immediate low byte of a word
1940 #>\ *expr* immediate high byte of a word
1941 (*expr*,x) indirect X
1942 (*expr*),y indirect Y
1946 @\ *expr*\ (x) indirect X
1947 @\ *expr*\ (y) indirect Y
1949 x,\ *expr* indexed X
1950 y,\ *expr* indexed Y
1951 ============== ========================================
1956 This directive enters the 6502 section. The location counter is undefined, and
1957 must be set with ".org" before any code can be generated.
1959 The "``dc.w``" directive will produce 6502-format words (low byte first). The
1960 68000's reserved keywords (``d0-d7/a0-a7/ssp/usp`` and so on) remain reserved
1961 (and thus unusable) while in the 6502 section. The directives **globl**, **dc.l**,
1962 **dcb.l**, **text**, **data**, **bss**, **abs**, **even** and **comm** are illegal in the 6502 section.
1963 It is permitted, though probably not useful, to generate both 6502 and 68000
1964 code in the same object file.
1966 This directive leaves the 6502 segment and returns to the 68000's text segment.
1967 68000 instructions may be assembled as normal.
1969 This directive is only legal in the 6502 section. It sets the value of the location
1970 counter (or **pc**) to location, an expression that must be defined, absolute, and
1975 It is possible to assemble "beyond" the microprocessor's 64K address space, but
1976 attempting to do so will probably screw up the assembler. DO NOT attempt
1977 to generate code like this:
1986 the third NOP in this example, at location $10000, may cause the assembler
1987 to crash or exhibit spectacular schizophrenia. In any case, RMAC will give
1988 no warning before flaking out.
1990 `6502 Object Code Format`_
1991 ''''''''''''''''''''''''''
1992 Traditionally Madmac had a very kludgy way of storing object files. This has been
1993 replaced with a more standard *.exe* (or *.com* or *.xex* if you prefer). Briefly,
1994 the *.exe* format consists of chunks of this format (one after the other):
1999 00-01 $FFFF - Indicates a binary load file. Mandatory for first segment, optional for any other segment
2000 02-03 Start Address. The segment will load at this address
2001 04-05 End Address. The last byte to load for this segment
2002 06-.. The actual segment data to load (End Address-Start Address + 1 bytes)
2007 `When Things Go Wrong`_
2008 '''''''''''''''''''''''
2009 Most of RMAC's error messages are self-explanatory. They fall into four classes:
2010 warnings about situations that you (or the assembler) may not be happy about,
2011 errors that cause the assembler to not generate object files, fatal errors that cause
2012 the assembler to abort immediately, and internal errors that should never happen.\ [3]_
2014 You can write editor macros (or sed or awk scripts) to parse the error messages
2015 RMAC generates. When a message is printed, it is of the form:
2017 "*filename*" , ``line`` *line-number*: *message*
2019 The first element, a filename enclosed in double quotes, indicates the file that generated
2020 the error. The filename is followed by a comma, the word "``line``", and a line
2021 number, and finally a colon and the text of the message. The filename "**(\*top\*)**"
2022 indicates that the assembler could not determine which file had the problem.
2024 The following sections list warnings, errors and fatal errors in alphabetical
2025 order, along with a short description of what may have caused the problem.
2027 .. [3] If you come across an internal error, we would appreciate it if you would contact Atari Technical Support and let us know about the problem.
2031 **bad backslash code in string**
2032 You tried to follow a backslash in a string with a character that the assembler
2033 didn't recognize. Remember that RMAC uses a C-style escape system in
2036 You specified a label before a macro, **rept** or **endm** directive. The assembler
2037 is warning you that the label will not be defined in the assembly.
2038 **unoptimized short branch**
2039 This warning is only generated if the -s switch is specified on the command
2040 line. The message refers to a forward, unsized long branch that you could have
2047 As a result of previous errors, the assembler cannot continue processing. The
2048 assembly is aborted.
2049 **line too long as a result of macro expansion**
2050 When a source line within a macro was expanded, the resultant line was too
2051 long for RMAC (longer than 200 characters or so).
2054 **memory exhausted**
2055 The assembler ran out of memory. You should (1) split up your source files
2056 and assemble them seperately, or (2) if you have any ramdisks or RAM-resident
2057 programs (like desk accessories) decrease their size so that the assembler has
2058 more RAM to work with. As a rule of thumb, pure 68000 code will use up to
2059 twice the number of bytes contained in the source files, whereas 6502 code will
2060 use 64K of ram right away, plus the size of the source files. The assembler itself
2061 uses about 80K bytes. Get out your calculator...
2063 The assembler ran across an **endm** directive when it wasn't expecting to see
2064 one. The assembly is aborted. Check the nesting of your macro definitions -
2065 you probably have an extra **endm**.
2073 Syntax error in **.cargs** directive.
2075 **.comm symbol already defined**
2077 You tried to ``.comm`` a symbol that was already defined.
2079 **.ds permitted only in BSS**
2081 You tried to use ``.ds`` in the text or data section.
2083 **.init not permitted in BSS or ABS**
2085 You tried to use ``.init`` in the BSS or ABS section.
2087 **.org permitted only in .6502 section**
2089 You tried to use ``.org`` in a 68000 section.
2091 **Cannot create:** *filename*
2093 The assembler could not create the indicated filename.
2095 **External quick reference**
2097 You tried to make the immediate operand of a **moveq**, **subq** or **addq** instruction external.
2099 **PC-relative expr across sections**
2101 You tried to make a PC-relative reference to a location contained in another
2104 **[bwsl] must follow '.' in symbol**
2106 You tried to follow a dot in a symbol name with something other than one of
2107 the four characters 'B', 'W', 'S' or 'L'.
2109 **addressing mode syntax**
2111 You made a syntax error in an addressing mode.
2115 One of your **.assert** directives failed!
2117 **bad (section) expression**
2119 You tried to mix and match sections in an expression.
2121 **bad 6502 addressing mode**
2123 The 6502 mnemonic will not work with the addressing mode you specified.
2127 There's a syntax error in the expression you typed.
2129 **bad size specified**
2131 You tried to use an inappropriate size suffix for the instruction. Check your
2132 68000 manual for allowable sizes.
2136 You can't use .b (byte) mode with the **movem** instruction.
2138 **cannot .globl local symbol**
2140 You tried to make a confined symbol global or common.
2142 **cannot initialize non-storage (BSS) section**
2144 You tried to generate instructions (or data, with dc) in the BSS or ABS section.
2146 **cannot use '.b' with an address register**
2148 You tried to use a byte-size suffix with an address register. The 68000 does not
2149 perform byte-sized address register operations.
2151 **directive illegal in .6502 section**
2153 You tried to use a 68000-oriented directive in the 6502 section.
2157 The expression you typed involves a division by zero.
2159 **expression out of range**
2161 The expression you typed is out of range for its application.
2163 **external byte reference**
2165 You tried to make a byte-sized reference to an external symbol, which the
2166 object file format will not allow.
2168 **external short branch**
2170 You tried to make a short branch to an external symbol, which the linker cannot
2173 **extra (unexpected) text found after addressing mode**
2175 RMAC thought it was done processing a line, but it ran up against "extra"
2176 stuff. Be sure that any comment on the line begins with a semicolon, and check
2177 for dangling commas, etc.
2179 **forward or undefined .assert**
2181 The expression you typed after a **.assert** directive had an undefined value.
2182 Remember that RMAC is one-pass.
2184 **hit EOF without finding matching .endif**
2186 The assembler fell off the end of last input file without finding a **.endif** to
2187 match an . it. You probably forgot a **.endif** somewhere.
2189 **illegal 6502 addressing mode**
2191 The 6502 instruction you typed doesn't work with the addressing mode you
2194 **illegal absolute expression**
2196 You can't use an absolute-valued expression here.
2198 **illegal bra.s with zero offset**
2200 You can't do a short branch to the very next instruction (read your 68000
2203 **illegal byte-sized relative reference**
2205 The object file format does not permit bytes contain relocatable values; you
2206 tried to use a byte-sized relocatable expression in an immediate addressing
2209 **illegal character**
2211 Your source file contains a character that RMAC doesn't allow. (most
2212 control characters fall into this category).
2214 **illegal initialization of section**
2216 You tried to use .dc or .dcb in the BSS or ABS sections.
2218 **illegal relative address**
2220 The relative address you specified is illegal because it belongs to a different
2223 **illegal word relocatable (in .PRG mode)**
2225 You can't have anything other than long relocatable values when you're gener-
2226 ating a **.PRG** file.
2228 **inappropriate addressing mode**
2230 The mnemonic you typed doesn't work with the addressing modes you specified.
2231 Check your 68000 manual for allowable combinations.
2233 **invalid addressing mode**
2235 The combination of addressing modes you picked for the **movem** instruction
2236 are not implemented by the 68000. Check your 68000 reference manual for
2239 **invalid symbol following ^^**
2241 What followed the ^^ wasn't a valid symbol at all.
2243 **mis-nested .endr**
2245 The assembler found a **.endr** directive when it wasn't prepared to find one.
2246 Check your repeat-block nesting.
2248 **mismatched .else**
2250 The assembler found a **.else** directive when it wasn't prepared to find one.
2251 Check your conditional assembly nesting.
2253 **mismatched .endif**
2255 The assembler found a **.endif** directive when it wasn't prepared to find one.
2256 Check your conditional assembly nesting.
2262 **missing argument name**
2264 **missing close parenthesis ')'**
2266 **missing close parenthesis ']'**
2270 **missing filename**
2276 **missing symbol or string**
2278 The assembler expected to see a symbol/filename/string (etc...), but found
2279 something else instead. In most cases the problem should be obvious.
2281 **misuse of '.', not allowed in symbols**
2283 You tried to use a dot (.) in the middle of a symbol name.
2287 The expression you typed involves a modulo by zero.
2289 **multiple formal argument definition**
2291 The list of formal parameter names you supplied for a macro definition includes
2292 two identical names.
2294 **multiple macro definition**
2296 You tried to define a macro which already had a definition.
2298 **non-absolute byte reference**
2300 You tried to make a byte reference to a relocatable value, which the object file
2301 format does not allow.
2303 **non-absolute byte value**
2305 You tried to dc.b or dcb.b a relocatable value. Byte relocatable values are
2306 not permitted by the object file format.
2308 **register list order**
2310 You tried to specify a register list like **D7-D0**, which is illegal. Remember
2311 that the first register number must be less than or equal to the second register
2314 **register list syntax**
2316 You made an error in specifying a register list for a **.reg** directive or a **.movem**
2319 **symbol list syntax**
2321 You probably forgot a comma between the names of two symbols in a symbol
2322 list, or you left a comma dangling on the end of the line.
2326 This is a "catch-all" error.
2328 **undefined expression**
2330 The expression has an undefined value because of a forward reference, or an
2331 undefined or external symbol.
2333 **unimplemented addressing mode**
2335 You tried to use 68020 "square-bracket" notation for a 68020 addressing mode.
2336 RMAC does not support 68020 addressing modes.
2338 **unimplemented directive**
2340 You have found a directive that didn't appear in the documentation. It doesn't
2343 **unimplemented mnemonic**
2347 **unknown symbol following ^^**
2349 You followed a ^^ with something other than one of the names defined, ref-
2352 **unsupported 68020 addressing mode**
2354 The assembler saw a 68020-type addressing mode. RMAC does not assem-
2355 ble code for the 68020 or 68010.
2357 **unterminated string**
2359 You specified a string starting with a single or double quote, but forgot to type
2364 The assembler had a problem writing an object file. This is usually caused by
2365 a full disk, or a bad sector on the media.